////
Copyright 2018, 2019 Peter Dimov

Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.

See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at
http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt
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[#design]
# Design
:idprefix: design_

## Features

This `variant` implementation has two distinguishing features:

* It's never "valueless", that is, `variant<T1, T2, ..., Tn>` has an
  invariant that it always contains a valid value of one of the types
  `T1`, `T2`, ..., `Tn`.
* It provides the strong exception safety guarantee on assignment and
  `emplace`.

This is achieved with the use of double storage, unless all of the
contained types have a non-throwing move constructor.

## Rationale

### Never Valueless

It makes intuitive sense that `variant<X, Y, Z>` can hold only values
of type `X`, type `Y`, or type `Z`, and nothing else.

If we think of `variant` as an extension of `union`, since a `union`
has a state called "no active member", an argument can be made that a
`variant<X, Y, Z>` should also have such an additional state, holding
none of `X`, `Y`, `Z`.

This however makes `variant` less convenient in practice and less useful
as a building block. If we really need a variable that only holds `X`,
`Y`, or `Z`, the additional empty state creates complications that need
to be worked around. And in the case where we do need this additional
empty state, we can just use `variant<empty, X, Y, Z>`, with a suitable
`struct empty {};`.

From a pure design perspective, the case for no additional empty state is
solid. Implementation considerations, however, argue otherwise.

When we replace the current value of the `variant` (of, say, type `X`) with
another (of type `Y`), since the new value needs to occupy the same storage
as the old one, we need to destroy the old `X` first, then construct a new
`Y` in its place. But since this is {cpp}, the construction can fail with an
exception. At this point the `variant` is in the "has no active member"
state that we've agreed it cannot be in.

This is a legitimate problem, and it is this problem that makes having
an empty/valueless state so appealing. We just leave the `variant` empty on
exception and we're done.

As explained, though, this is undesirable from a design perspective as it
makes the component less useful and less elegant.

There are several ways around the issue. The most straightforward one is to
just disallow types whose construction can throw. Since we can always create
a temporary value first, then use the move constructor to initialize the one
in the `variant`, it's enough to require a nonthrowing move constructor,
rather than all constructors to be nonthrowing.

Unfortunately, under at least one popular standard library implementation,
node based containers such as `std::list` and `std::map` have a potentially
throwing move constructor. Disallowing `variant<X, std::map<Y, Z>>` is hardly
practical, so the exceptional case cannot be avoided.

On exception, we could also construct some other value, leaving the `variant`
valid; but in the general case, that construction can also throw. If one of
the types has a nonthrowing default constructor, we can use it; but if not,
we can't.

The approach Boost.Variant takes here is to allocate a temporary copy of
the value on the heap. On exception, a pointer to that temporary copy can be
stored into the `variant`. Pointer operations don't throw.

Another option is to use double buffering. If our `variant` occupies twice
the storage, we can construct the new value in the unused half, then, once
the construction succeeds, destroy the old value in the other half.

When `std::variant` was standardized, none of those approaches was deemed
palatable, as all of them either introduce overhead or are too restrictive
with respect to the types a `variant` can contain. So as a compromise,
`std::variant` took a way that can (noncharitably) be described as "having
your cake and eating it too."

Since the described exceptional situation is relatively rare, `std::variant`
has a special case, called "valueless", into which it goes on exception,
but the interface acknowledges its existence as little as possible, allowing
users to pretend that it doesn't exist.

This is, arguably, not that bad from a practical point of view, but it leaves
many of us wanting. Rare states that "never" occur are undertested and when
that "never" actually happens, it's usually in the most inconvenient of times.

This implementation does not follow `std::variant`; it statically guarantees
that `variant` is never in a valueless state. The function
`valueless_by_exception` is provided for compatibility, but it always returns
`false`.

Instead, if the contained types are such that it's not possible to avoid an
exceptional situation when changing the contained value, double storage is
used.

### Strong Exception Safety

The initial submission only provided the basic exception safety guarantee.
If an attempt to change the contained value (via assignment or `emplace`)
failed with an exception, and a type with a nonthrowing default constructor
existed among the alternatives, a value of that type was created into the
`variant`. The upside of this decision was that double storage was needed
less frequently.

The reviewers were fairly united in hating it. Constructing a random type
was deemed too unpredictable and not complying with the spirit of the
basic guarantee. The default constructor of the chosen type, even if
nonthrowing, may still have undesirable side effects. Or, if not that, a
value of that type may have special significance for the surrounding code.
Therefore, some argued, the `variant` should either remain with its
old value, or transition into the new one, without synthesizing other
states.

At the other side of the spectrum, there were those who considered double
storage unacceptable. But they considered it unacceptable in principle,
regardless of the frequency with which it was used.

As a result, providing the strong exception safety guarantee on assignment
and `emplace` was declared an acceptance condition.

In retrospect, this was the right decision. The reason the strong guarantee
is generally not provided is because it doesn't compose. When `X` and `Y`
provide the basic guarantee on assignment, so does `struct { X x; Y y; };`.
Similarly, when `X` and `Y` have nonthrowing assignments, so does the
`struct`. But this doesn't hold for the strong guarantee.

The usual practice is to provide the basic guarantee on assignment and
let the user synthesize a "strong" assignment out of either a nonthrowing
`swap` or a nonthrowing move assignment. That is, given `x1` and `x2` of
type `X`, instead of the "basic" `x1 = x2;`, use either `X(x2).swap(x1);`
or `x1 = X(x2);`.

Nearly all types provide a nonthrowing `swap` or a nonthrowing move
assignment, so this works well. Nearly all, except `variant`, which in the
general case has neither a nonthrowing `swap` nor a nonthrowing move
assignment. If `variant` does not provide the strong guarantee itself, it's
impossible for the user to synthesize it.

So it should, and so it does.

## Differences with std::variant

The main differences between this implementation and `std::variant` are:

* No valueless-by-exception state: `valueless_by_exception()` always
  returns `false`.
* Strong exception safety guarantee on assignment and `emplace`.
* `emplace` first constructs the new value and then destroys the old one;
  in the single storage case, this translates to constructing a temporary
  and then moving it into place.
* A converting constructor from, e.g. `variant<int, float>` to 
  `variant<float, double, int>` is provided as an extension.
* The reverse operation, going from `variant<float, double, int>` to
  `variant<int, float>` is provided as the member function `subset<U...>`.
  (This operation can throw if the current state of the variant cannot be
  represented.)
* `unsafe_get`, an unchecked alternative to `get` and `get_if`, is provided
  as an extension.
* `visit_by_index`, a visitation function that takes a single variant and a
  number of function objects, one per alternative, is provided as an extension.
* The {cpp}20 additions and changes to `std::variant` have not yet been
  implemented.

## Differences with Boost.Variant

This library is API compatible with `std::variant`. As such, its interface
is different from Boost.Variant's. For example, visitation is performed via
`visit` instead of `apply_visitor`.

Recursive variants are not supported.

Double storage is used instead of temporary heap backup. This `variant` is
always "stack-based", it never allocates, and never throws `bad_alloc` on
its own.
